South Asia continues to be the hot spot of international terrorism, which makes it one of the world’s biggest crisis regions in the 21^st century. South Asia stands as one of the world's most complex and volatile regions regarding terrorism, hosting a very complex, diverse web of extremist movements that have evolved over decades. From the snow-capped mountains of Afghanistan and Kashmir to the tropical shores of Sri Lanka and the densely populated plains of Bangladesh and the island nation of the Maldives, the region has witnessed the emergence of numerous terrorist organisations with varying ideologies, methods, and objectives. This makes the obvious case to know the history of its genesis, reasons for spreading and surviving so long, with no hope for its destruction in the near future.

The genesis of terrorism in South Asia has never been divorced from the region's tumultuous history. The 1947 unscientific partition of the Indian sub-continent into independent countries India and Pakistan created unresolved territorial disputes, most notably over Kashmir, that later became a flashpoint for state-sponsored terrorism in the region. The Cold War further complicated the issue through the superpower competition that transformed Afghanistan into a battleground. The United States and its allies, for the first time, supported Islamist mujahedin to resist Soviet forces. They carelessly laid the groundwork for the transnational terrorist networks to flourish in South Asia.

This article examines the historical root causes of the genesis of terrorism and its chronological development across South Asia. It explores how colonial past, geopolitical conflicts, religious radicalisation, and socioeconomic reasons have collectively contributed to an environment conducive to religious extremism and terrorism to grow and mature. By understanding this complex history of the genesis of terrorism, we can better comprehend the challenges facing the region and realise how big the impact of this menace is.

Terrorism is very complex and controversial in nature due to the lack of a universal definition.1 For ambiguity in understanding, the term terrorism is very difficult to define, mainly because of its ever-changing contexts of use.2 The commonly-used definition of terrorism is often described as “the use of unlawful violence and threats, especially against civilians, to achieve political, ideological or religious goals.”3 French revolutionaries during the French Revolution in the 1790s used the term ‘Terrorism’ for the first time, indicating the anti-revolutionary oppressors, who staged severe violence and mass execution from September 1793 to July 1794, as the ‘Reign of Terror’.4 One revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre, best known for spearheading the Reign of Terror, through leading the Committee of Public Safety, proclaimed in 1794, “Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible”.5 Well-known scholar Michael Walzer has defined Terrorism as “the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders”.6 However, this definition is not universally accepted, as the term encompasses a wide range of actions and motivations that differ across cultures and historical periods.

One of the primary difficulties in defining terrorism lies in the confused nature of the term itself. When one group labels terrorism as an act of violence, another may view it as a legitimate struggle for freedom or self-determination for a marginalised or ethnic community.7 Because of the subjective complications attached to its international discourse and legal frameworks, states often adopt different definitions or perspectives that may serve their political interests. Overall, experts have distinguished terrorism or political extremism from other forms of violence, such as ethnic based-insurgency or guerrilla warfare.8 The primary objective of terrorism has always been to make the common people fear and create a psychological atmosphere in its favour, as well as to achieve political goals through military means.9

South Asia remains the epicentre of international terrorism. Terrorist operates across national boundaries in the region. India, the most powerful country in the region, has been the primary target of several terror groups operating from Pakistan, such as HM, LeT, and JeM, which have a primary focus on disturbing Kashmir. Similarly, TTP poses a significant internal security threat to Pakistan. In Afghanistan, the Taliban, the most powerful political entity, has historically supported terror outfits like Al-Qaeda and the Haqqani Network, which are responsible for sophisticated attacks around the world. Bangladesh is also fighting with homegrown Islamist groups like Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) and Ansar al-Islam, which were responsible for the 2016 Dhaka Bakery attack. 70 In Sri Lanka, too, there is now the presence of several Al-Qaeda and ISIS-inspired terror/insurgence/extremist groups like NTJ, which was behind the Easter Sunday terror attacks in 2019.71 Similar kinds of Pakistan-based terror groups like LeT, JeM, and Al-Qaeda are increasing their presence in the Himalayan nation of Nepal, which worries the regional peace and security in South Asia. 72

The September 11, 2001, attacks on the twin towers of the World Trade Centre (WTC) in the USA, orchestrated by Al-Qaeda from its Afghan sanctuary under Taliban protection, were a seismic global event.73 Nineteen hijackers turned commercial airliners into weapons, destroying the WTC towers, damaging the Pentagon, and killing nearly 3,000 people. In response, President George W. Bush launched the “Global War on Terrorism” (GWOT).74 Its first major military action was Operation Enduring Freedom, the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. The GWOT led to the 2003 Iraq invasion by the USA.75 These events vastly increased global counterterrorism cooperation, intelligence sharing, and security measures, and prompted controversial policies like drone strikes and increased severe interrogation by states.

The history of terrorism in South Asia has been very complex, intertwined with political, social, and economic reasons that have evolved over decades. Rooted in historical mistakes along with ethnic tensions and socio-economic inequalities among religious communities, terrorism has emerged as a potential response across the region. From the insurgencies and political violence in Kashmir and the genesis of the LTTE and JVP in Sri Lanka to the radicalisation of youth in Bangladesh and Pakistan and the influence of extremist ideologies in Afghanistan, along with the brewing of radicalisation in the Maldives, each country presents a unique narrative of extremism shaped across the region.

The interplay of anti-terrorism laws and other related state policies, foreign interventions, and the proliferation of extremist ideologies has further complicated the whole issue. Governments in South Asia often opt for stringent counterterror measures, which have been alienating Muslim youths, resulting in political violence. Significantly, the involvement of foreign powers, such as America’s South Asia plans and China's strategic interests, adds several layers of complexity to the already sensitive issue.

In a nutshell, addressing a most complicated issue like terrorism in South Asia requires a multifaceted and holistic approach that goes beyond stringent military solutions. 76 The first and foremost requirement is to understand the root causes, promote inclusive governance models, foster accessible economic development reaching across the communities irrespective of their number and political participation, and facilitate inclusive dialogue among communities as its stakeholders. Only through the formulation and adoption of a comprehensive strategy with unanimously accepted counterterror measures can we hopefully break the cycle of extremist violence and terrorism across the South Asia region.